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Muhammad AbduhMuhammad Abduh (Muhammad 'Abduh) (1849 - 1905) was an Egyptian student of Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani (1839-97), a philosopher and religious reformer who advocated Pan-Islamism to resist European colonialism. Under al-Afghani's influence, Abduh combined journalism, politics, and his own fascination in mystic spirituality. He was banished from Egypt (1882-9), but it is unclear if his exile is connected to the Urabi Revolt. While in exile, he lived in Paris where he co-published with al-Afghani an Islamic reformist journal. When he returned to Egypt, he continued to press for reform and published his main philosophical treatise the Theology of Unity (Risālat at-Tawhīd) in 1897. In 1899, he was appointed an official mufti, a title he held until his death. Abduh's treatise is an apologetic for main Islamic doctrines, and is addressed to Western-educated men, both Muslims and non-Muslims. He rejected the closing of the gates of ijtihad, and taught that morality and law must be adapted to modern conditions in the interest of the common good. He argued that humans can in principle know good and evil by reason alone, but most failed to do so. The actual obligation to do what is right can only be known through God's revelation. His theory almost breaks with a Juristic tradition going back to the beginning of Islam. Abduh promoted the idea of salafiyya (pious forefathers). Salafism asserts that the Islam of the forefathers was rational and practical. Therefore, Islam is inherently adaptable, but was hampered by the rigid structures imposed by later generations. Abduh's theory of salafism would be modified by Hasan al-Bana, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. Abduh's most prominent disciples were Rashid Rida and Ali abd al-Raziq. Both students would write about the abolition of the caliphate in 1924 and further reforms they felt necessary to strengthen Islam.
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