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Expectancy EffectThe expectancy effect (or experimenter effect) is a common problem in scientific experiments, a researcher or subject expects a given result, and tends to find it in the data. The effect is so powerful that the expensive and complex double blind methodology is needed to combat it. The problem remains, and is often a cause of "odd" results in many fringe experiments, notably in paranormal investigation. A good example was the horse Clever Hans, who seemed to be doing mathematics, but in reality took unconscious clues from his trainer. In another example, children were given rats, and told that some rats were bred for intelligence, some for dullness. In reality, the rats were chosen at random. But the "smart" rats seemed to learn mazes faster. Another example of the theory can be demonstrated in the more recent activity of music backtracking. Some people expect to hear hidden messages when reversing songs, and therefore hear the messages. To others these may sound nothing more than random sounds. External links and references
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