sandawe language

Introduction

Sandawe is a tonal language spoken in the Dodoma region of Tanzania. Reported speaker numbers vary between 30 000 (Tucker, 1977) and 70 000 (SIL/Ethnologue 1987). Sandawe is classified as a Khoisan language by Greenberg (1976). The main reason for this classification is the presence of clicks in the language. A more recent discussion of Sandawe's linguistic classification can be found in Sands (1998). SIL International began work on Sandawe in 1996 and to date (2004), Daniel and Elisabeth Hunziker and Helen Eaton continue to work on the analysis of the language. They have so far produced a phonological description, a dialect survey report and several papers on aspects of grammar. Sandawe is also currently (as of 2004) studied by Sander Steeman of Leiden University.

Sounds

Vowels

Sandawe has five vowel qualities:

i	u
\|\| e \|\| \|\| o \|\|
\|\| \|\| a \|\| \|\|

All five vowel qualities may be found as short oral, long oral and long nasal vowels. There are therefore fifteen vowel phonemes. In word-final position, devoiced u and i vowels occur frequently.

Consonants

Non-click consonants

written yet

Clicks

(source: De Voogt 1992:53,54)

Dental	Lateral	Lamino-postalveolar
Glottalised	ʔǀ	ʔǁ	ʔǃ
Glottalised with delayed release	ǀʔ	ǁʔ	ǃʔ
Aspirated	ǀʰ	ǁʰ	ǃʰ
Nasal	ŋǀ	ŋǁ	ŋǃ

Grammar

Pronouns

Sandawe	English
1 sg.	-s	I
2 sg.	-i	you
3 sg. male	-	he
3 sg. female	-s	she
1 pl	-w	we
2 pl	-	you
3 pl	-ʔ	they

Syllable structure

Sandawe syllables are usually of the form CV; in monosyllabic words, word-final nasals are not uncommon, CV(N). Sometimes other consonants are found in word-final position, but this is most probably the result of deletion of word-final voiceless vowels. A syllabic nasal m is found in Swahili loanwords. The most common word structure is disyllabic with or without long vowels (CV(:)CV(:)), according to De Voogt (1992).

Nouns

A noun consists generally of a stem and a suffix which indicates gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, plural). to be added

Adjectives

Adjectival concepts are mostly expressed as verbs in Sandawe according to Kagawe (1993:ix).

Syntax

Basic word order in Sandawe is SOV according to De Voogt (1992). However, word order in the Sandawe sentence is very flexible due to the presence of several 'subject identification strategies'. Sample sentence (mid tones are not marked): te-s kx'ar-s hʔ!
yesterday-I boy-I called
Yesterday I called a boy
(source: De Voogt 1992:19 adapted from Tucker 1977)

Tone

Elderkin (1989) analyzes Sandawe as having two level tones (High, Low) and two contour tones (Falling, Rising). His thesis considers the behavior of tone at word-, sentence- and discourse-level. De Voogt (1992) and Kagaya (1993) list three level tones (High, Mid, Low) and two contour tones (Falling, Rising).