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Ali Ibn Abi TalibAli ibn Abi Talib (علي بن أبي طالب) (c. 600 – 661) was the fourth Caliph or successor of Muhammad. He was also the Prophet's cousin, and, after marrying Fatima, his son-in-law as well. Ali was born at Mecca where his father, Abu Talib, was an uncle of the Prophet. Ali himself was adopted by Muhammad and educated under his care. Ali proved himself to be wise, brave, and faithful. He is revered in both Shi'a and Sunni Islam as one of the exemplary first four righteously guided Caliphs. In 622, the year of Muhammad's flight to Medina, Ali risked his life by sleeping in the Prophet's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that the Prophet could flee in safety. In addition, Ali delayed his own departure from Medina to carry out Muhammad's instructions to restore all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to him as a merchant to their owners in Mecca. According to Shi'a Islam, before Muhammad died he had publicly appointed Ali to be his successor as a command from God, and this nomination happened at Ghadir Khum when Muhammad and a convoy of Muslims had finished the performance of Hajj (Pilgrimage). This claim is hotly disputed however, and Sunni scholars point out that it is highly unlikely that the electors of the first Caliph would have disregarded such a public endorsement, had it been factual. They further point to the Prophet's injunction to the Faithful to settle their matters through shura, or consultation, thereby establishing the elective office of the Caliphate which endured for the first four occupants. Consequently, the first caliph to be elected was Abu Bakr, Muhammad's closest friend. Nevertheless Ali became one of Abu Bakr's closest advisors, and went on to name one of his sons Abu Bakr (and later named sons after the caliphs Umar and Uthman). As caliph, Abu Bakr was followed by Umar and Uthman. It was not until 656, after the murder of Uthman, that Ali was elected caliph. Some claimed that he took no steps to prevent this murder, but even in Sunni Islam, this is not a widely held view, and Ali's reputation remains untarnished across all sects and divides. Contrarily, some stories claim that Ali sent his sons Husayn and Hassan to defend Uthman, and was angered when they were unable to do so. Almost the first act of his caliphate was the diffusing of a rebellion under Talha and Zubair (two eminent companions of Muhammad), who were instigated by Aisha, Muhammad's widow. She was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); the two generals were killed, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was allocated a pension. Soon thereafter Ali dismissed several provincial governors, many of whom had amassed small fortunes, and replaced them with companions of the Prophet (such as Salman al-Farsi) or trusted aides (such as Malik al-Ashtar). Ali then transfered his capital to Kufa. His next care was to deal with the opposition of Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of the Ali's slain predecessor, who had established himself at the head of a renegade army. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 in the plain of Siffin (Suffein), near the Euphrates; the battle seemed to be turning in favor of Ali, when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood." At this point, the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Abu Musa Asha'ri was appointed advocate for Ali, and `Amr-ibn-al-As, a veteran diplomat, was for Mu'awiyah. It is claimed that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt. According to another legend, three members of the sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The only victim of this plot ended up being Ali, who died at Kufa in 661, of the wound inflicted by a poisoned sword from behind, while Ali was performing morning prayers. A splendid mosque called Mashad Ali was afterwards erected near the city at Najaf, the place of his burial (although some believe he is buried at Mazar-e-Sharif in Afghanistan). He had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children, one of whom, Hassan, a son of Fatima, is said to have renounced any claim to the caliphate to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Muawiyah I thus became the undisputed caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs, over the opposition of Hassan. Ali's descendants by Fatima are known in Shi'a tradition by the title of Sayyid, an honorary designation meaning Sir or Master. Not so in Sunni Islam, where accident of birth is no entitlement to special honors or privileges, with the exception of certain modern day dynasties like the Hashemites, who are also called Sharīfs (noble ones). This title has been used interchangeably with the Hashemite kings and suzerains of Mecca, and subsequently the sovereigns of Iraq (now extinct) and Jordan. According to Sunni scholarship, even Muhammad was capable of error and human failings. Ascribing divinity to any but God is an extreme blasphemy. The question of Ali's right to succeed to the caliphate is an article of faith which came to divide the Muslim world into two great sects, the Sunni and the Shi'a. The Sunnis believe that the prophet did not designate a successor, and explicitly commanded that his followers consult and vote in all matters, including the succession. The Shi'a believe that he publicly designated Ali as successor. Whatever the case, while Ali actively campaigned for the first three elections, he did not challenge Abu Bakr or any of the later caliphs, but rather chose to serve as an advisor to them. Ali is greatly respected by all Muslims, both Sunni and Shi'a. The Shi'a in particular venerate him as second only to the prophet. They also celebrate the anniversaries of his martyrdom and birth; the Shia version of the adhan also includes an explicit reference to Ali. Ali is described as a bold, noble and generous man, "the last and worthiest of the first generation Muslims, who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the prophet himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity of his example." (See further Caliphate.) In the eyes of the later Muslims he was remarkable for learning and wisdom, and there are extant collections of proverbs and verses which bear his name: the Sentences of Ali. The most famous collection of Ali's speeches and letters is the Nahj al Balagha meaning "The peak of eloquence". His sons Hassan and Husayn are also respected by Muslims, and revered by the Shi'a in particular. See also External links
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