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A Guide For The PerplexedA Guide For The Perplexed is a short book by E.F. Schumacher, published in 1977. It is a treatise on nature and organisation of knowledge and is something of an attack on what Schumacher calls materialistic scientism. The Los Angeles Times wrote that it was a "harvest of utterly sane, consoling, and life-affirming insight from one of the wisest minds of our time." Schumacher argues that the current philosophical 'maps' that dominate western thought and science are both overly narrow and based on some false premises. However, this book is only in small part a critique, Schumacher spends the greater part of it putting forward and explaining what he considers to be the four great truths of philosophical map making: - The world is a hierarchical structure with at least four levels of being.
- The principle of adequateness.
- Man's learning relates to four fields of knowledge.
- Living in the world requires an understanding of two types of problem: 'convergent' and 'divergent'.
This work is not to be confused with Moses Maimonides' similiarly titled 12th-century tract. Critical reception The book was well recieved when first released: Newsday wrote that the "late E.F. Schumacher understates his case in titling this book A Guide for the Perplexed; what he undertakes is to provide nothing less than a Manual for Survival, concerned not merely with individual physical or even societal endurance (though that, too), but more importantly with the full realization of human potential. Does that sound impossibly ambitious? It's only the beginning. In the process of articulating his view of life, Schumacher proceeds to knock the foundation from under much of what science has been about these past few centuries, and then to bring into synthesis the definitive tenets of the world's major religions. All this -- and more -- in only 140 pages. But hold the snickers; the man pulls it off. Compelling reasoned and persuasively presented, this Guide diagrams a view of humans and the world in which they live that will challenge and stimulate every thoughtful reader." Theordore Roszak writing for the Los Angeles Times said that "A Guide for the Perplexed offers us a harvest of utterly insane, consoling , and life-affirming insight from one of the wisest minds of our time. It is and unapologetic defense of traditional Christian humanism which I am certain will light many a darkened path." The Chicago Tribune wrote that "A Guide for the Perplexed is really a statement of the philosophical underpinnings that inform Small is Beautiful. Those who have read neither book should be wise to read the latest book first. Those who have read Small is Beautiful will benefit from careful reading of this new book. It's impact may be less immediate, but perhaps more substantial and lasting." Critique of materialistic scientism Schumacher was very much in favour of the scientific spirit; but felt that the dominant methodology within science, which he called materialistic scientism was flawed; and stood in the way of achieving knowledge in any other arena than inanimate nature. Schumacher makes a distinction between the descriptive and instructional sciences. According to Schumacher the descriptive sciences are primarily concerned with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, e.g. botany and sociology. While the instructional sciences are concerned with how certain systems work and can be manipulated to produce certain results, e.g. biology and chemistry. Instructional science is primarily based on evidence gained from experimentation Materialistic scientism is based on the methodology of the instructional sciences, which developed to study and experiment with inanimate matter. According to Schumacher many philosophers of science fail to recognise the difference between descriptive and instructional science; or ascribe this difference to stages in the evolution of a specific science; which for these philosophers means that the instructional sciences are seen as being the most advanced variety of science. Schumacher is particularly offended by the view that instructional science is the most advanced form of science; because, for Schumacher, it is the study of the low hanging fruit of inanimate matter, or less metaphorically the study of the lowest and least complex level of being. As Schumacher sees it knowledge gained about the higher levels of being, while far harder to get and far less certain, is all the more valuable. Schumacher quotes St Thomas Aquinas approvingly "the slenderest knowledge that may be obtained from higher things is more desirable than the most certain knowledge obtained from lesser things." Schumacher argues the applying the standards and procedures of instructional science to descriptive sciences is erroneous, because in the descriptive fields it is simply not possible to use the experimental techniques of instructional sciences. Experimentation is a very effective methodology when dealing with inanimate matter; but applying it to the living world is liable to destroy or damage living things and systems, and is therefore inappropriate. In support of his argument, Schumacher quotes Dr Viktor E. Frankl "The present danger does not really lie in the loss of universality on the part of the scientist, but rather in his pretence and claim of totality...What we have to deplore therefore is not so much the fact that scientists are specialising, but rather the fact that specialists are generalising. After many years of theological imperialism, we have now had three centuries of ever more aggressive 'scientific imperialism'." Schumacher uses the term scientism because he argues that many people, including some philosophers of science, have misunderstood the theory behind instructional science and believe that it produces truth. But the instructional sciences are based on induction; and as David Hume famously points out induction is not the same as truth. Furthermore, according to Schumacher, instructional sciences are primarily concerned only with the parts of truth that are useful for manipulation, i.e. they focus on those instructions which are necessary to reliably produce certain results. But this does not mean that an alternative instruction set won't work, or indeed an alternative instruction set based on quite different principles. For Schumacher, instructional sciences therefore produce theories which are useful not true, they produce pragmatic truths. By contrast, Schumacher argues that the descriptive sciences are interested in the truth in the wider sense of the word. Schumacher argues that materialistic scientism follows a policy of leaving something out if it is in doubt. Consequently, the maps of western science fail to show large 'unorthodox' parts of both theory and practise of science and social science, and reveal a complete disregard for art and 'so-called' occult and paranormal phenomena. Such an approach, Schumacher argues, provides a grey, limited, utilitarian worldview without room for vitally important phenomena like beauty and meaning. Schumacher observes that the mere mention of occult and paranormal phenomena in academic discussion is seen as a sign of 'mental deficiency' among scientists. Schumacher argues that where there is near total agreement a subject becomes effectively dead; and it is the subjects where there is doubt that deserve the most intense research. Schumacher believes in contrast to materialistic science that what is in doubt should be shown prominently, not hidden away or ignored. Schumachers biggest complaint against materialistic scientism is that rejects the validity of certain questions, which for Schumacher are actually the most important questions of all. Materialistic scientism rejects the idea of levels of being; but for Schumacher this leads to a one sided view of nature. For Schumacher, you can learn much about man by studying from the perspective of minerals, plants and animals, because man contains the lower levels of being. But that is not the full or even the most important part of the story, as he puts "...everything can be learned about him (man) except that which makes us human." Levels of being For Schumacher one of sciences major mistakes has been rejecting the traditional philosophical and religious view that the universe is a hierarchy of being. Schumacher makes an elegant restatement of the traditional chain of being. Schumacher agrees with the traditional view that there are four kingdoms: Schumacher argues that there are critical differences of kind between each level of being. Between mineral and plant is the phenomenon of life, As Schumacher says though scientists say we should not use the phrase 'life energy', the difference still exists and has not been explained by science. Schumacher points out that though we can recognise life and destroy it, we can't create it. Schumacher notes that the 'life sciences' are 'extraordinary' because they hardly ever deal with life as such, and instead content themselves with analysing the "physico-chemical body which is life's carrier." Schumacher goes on to say there is nothing in physics or chemistry to explain the phenomenon of life. For Schumacher, a similiar jump in level of being takes place between plant and animal, which is differentiated by the phenomenon of consciousness. We can recognise consciousness, not least because we can knock an animal unconscious, but also because animals exhibit at minimum primitive thought and intelligence. The next level, according to Schumacher, is between Animal and Man, which are differentiated by the phenomenon of self consciousness or self awareness. Self consciousness is the reflective awareness of one's consciousness and thoughts. Schumacher does not want to cause confusion with words and suggests an equation which can be written thus: - 'Mineral' = m
- 'Plant' = m + x
- 'Animal' = m + x + y
- 'Man' = m + x + y + z
For Schumacher, the differences between mineral, plant, animal and man are ontological discontinuities. He argues that they are differences can be likened to differences in dimension; and from one perspective it could be argued that only humans have 'real' existence in so far as they possess the three dimensions of life, consciousness and self consciousness. Schumacher uses this perspective to contrast with the materialistic scientism view, which argues that what is 'real' is inanimate matter; denying the realness of life, consciousness and self consciousness, despite the fact each individual can verify those phenomena from their own experience. Schumacher directs our attention to the fact that science has generally avoided seriously discussing these discontinuities, because they present such difficulties for strictly materialistic science, and they largely remain mysteries. Next Schumacher considers the animal model of man which has grown popular in science. Schumacher notes that within the humanities the distinction between consciousness and self consciousness is now seldom drawn. Consequently, people have become increasingly uncertain about whether there is any difference between animal and man. Schumacher notes that a great of research about humans has been conducted by studying animals. Schumacher argues that this is analogous to studying physics in the hope of understanding life. Schumacher goes on to say, that much can be learned about man by studying minerals, plants and animals; because man has inherited those levels of being; all that is 'except that which makes him human.' Schumacher goes on to say that nothing is 'more conducive to the brutalisation of the modern world' than calling humans the 'naked ape'. Schumacher argues that once people begin viewing humans as 'animal machines' they soon begin treating them accordingly. Schumacher argues that what defines man is his greatest achievements not the common run of things. He argues that human beings are open-ended because of the human powers of self awareness, which as distinct from life and consciousness has nothing mechanical or automatic about it. For Schumacher "the powers of self awareness are, essentially, a limitless potentiality rather than an actuality. They have to be developed and 'realized' by each human individual if he is to become truly human, that is to say, a person." Progressions Schumacher points out that there are a number of progressions that take place between the levels. The most striking he believes is the movement from passivity to activity, there is a change in the origination of movement between each level: One consequence of this progression is that each level of being becomes increasingly unpredictable, it is in this sense that man can be said to have free will. Schumacher notes increasing integration is a consequence of levels of being. A mineral can be subdivided and it remains of the same composition. Plants are more integrated; but sometimes parts of a plant can survive independently of the original plant. Animals are physically integrated; and so an appendage of an animal does not another animal make. However, while animals are highly integrated physically, they are not integrated in their consciousness. Humans, meanwhile are not only physically integrated but have an integrated consciousness; however they are poorly integrated in terms of self consciousness. Another interesting progression, for Schumacher, is the change in the richness of the world. A mineral has no world as such. A plant some limited awareness of its immediate conditions. An animal, however, has a far more rich and complex world. Finally, humans have the most rich and complicated world of all. Indeed Schumacher says it could be argued that only humans are the truly 'real', given only they experience all the levels of being. Implications For Schumacher, recognising these different levels of being is vital, because the governing rules of each level is different, which has clear implications for the practise of science and the acquisition of knowledge. Schumacher denies the democratic principles of science, he argues that all humans can practise the study of the inanimate matter, because they are a higher level of being; but only the spiritually aware can know about self consciousness and possibly higher levels. Schumacher states that "no being can understand anything higher than themselves." Schumacher argues that by removing the vertical dimension from the universe and the qualitative distinctions of 'higher' and 'lower' qualities which go with it, materialistic scientism can in the societal sphere only lead to moral relativism and utilitarianism. While in the personal sphere, answering the question 'What do I do with my life?' leaves us with only two answers: selfishness and utilitarianism. In contrast, Schumacher argues that appreciating the different levels of being provides a simple, but clear morality. The traditional view, as Schumacher says, has always been that the proper goal of man is "...to move higher, to develop his highest faculties, to gain knowledge of the higher and highest things, and, if possible, to 'see God'. If he moves lower, develops only his lower faculites, which he shares with the animals, then he makes himself deeply unhappy, even to the point of despair." This is a view, Schumacher says, which is shared by all the major religions. Many things, Schumacher says, while true at a lower level, become absurd at a higher level, and vice versa. Schumacher does not claim there is any scientific evidence for a level of being above self consciousness, contenting himself with the observation that this has been the universal conviction of all major religions. Adequateness For Schumacher, the great truth of adequateness is that nothing can be known without an appropriate instrument in the make up of the knower. Everything around us must be matched with some faculty within us, otherwise we remain unaware of its existence. He quotes Plotinus "Knowing demands the organ fitted to the object." Schumacher explains that the bodily senses are adequate for perceiving inanimate matter; but we need 'intellectual' senses for other levels. Schumacher observes that science has shown that we perceive not only with the senses, but also with the mind. He illustrates this with the example of a complex scientific book; it means quite different things to an animal, illiterate man, educated man and scientist. Each person possesses different internal 'senses' which means they 'understand' the book in quite different manners. Schumacher points out that materialistic science is principally based on the sense of sight and looks only at the external manifestation of things. Necessarily according to the principle of adequateness, materialistic science cannot know more than a limited part of nature. Schumacher argues that by restricting the modes of observation, a limited 'objectivity' can be attained; but this is attained at the expense of knowledge of the object as a whole. Only the 'lowest' and most superficial aspects are accessible to objective scientific instruments. Schumacher notes that science became 'science for manipulation' following Descartes. Descartes promised men would become 'masters and possessors of nature', a point of view first popularised by Francis Bacon. For Schumacher this was something of a wrong turn, because it meant the devaluation of 'science for understanding' or wisdom. One of Schumacher criticisms is that 'science for manipulation' almost inevitably leads from the manipulation of nature to he manipulation of people. Schumacher argues that 'science for manipulation' is a valuable tool when subordinated for 'science for understanding' or wisdom; but until then 'science for manipulation' has become a danger to humanity. Schumacher argues that if materialistic scientism grows to dominate science even further then there will be three negative consequences: - Quality of life will fall, because solutions of quantity are incapable of solving problems of quality.
- 'Science for understanding' will not develop, because the dominant paradigm will prevent it being treated as a serious subject.
- Problems will become insoluble, because the higher powers of man will atrophy through lack of use.
Schumacher argues that the ideal science would have a proper hierarchy of knowledge from pure knowledge for understanding at the top of the hierarchy to knowledge for manipulation at the bottom. At the level of knowledge for manipulation, the aims of prediction and control are appropriate. But as we deal with higher levels they become increasingly absurd. As Schumacher says "Human beings are highly predictable as physico-chemical systems, less predictable as living bodies, much lesss so as conscious beings and hardly at all as self aware persons." The result of materialistic scientism is that man has become rich in means and poor in ends. Lacking a sense of higher values Western societies are left with pluralism, moral relativism and utilitarianism, and for Schumacher the inevitable result is chaos. Four Fields of Knowledge Schumacher identifies four fields of knowledge for the individual: - I → inner
- I → other persons
- other persons → I
- I → the world
Schumacher notes that humans only have direct access to fields one and four. Field one is being aware of your feelings and thoughts and most closely correlates to self awareness. Schumacher argues this is fundamentally the study of attention. He differentiates between when your attention is captured by the item it focuses upon, which is when a human being functions much like a machine; and when a person consciously directs their attention according to their choosing. This for Schumacher is the difference between being lived and living. Schumacher observes that the idea of awakening is common idea in all the great religions. Buddhism is sometimes called the Doctrine of Awakening and in the New Testament Jesus constantly exhorts his followers to "stay awake, to watch, not to fall asleep." The aim of these teachings is to perceive the world and mind with a pure awareness without preconceptions. Field two is being aware of what other people are thinking and feeling. Schumacher suggests that actually understanding another individual is something of a 'miracle' when you really think about how difficult it is. The problem of being aware of other people is a four step process and involves two 'translations'. In order to understand someone else four steps have take place - The other person must be self aware enough to know what they really feel and think.
- The other person must translate their thoughts and feelings into words and gestures.
- You must perceive their words and gestures clearly.
- You must then translate these words and gestures and come to the same understandings as the other person.
Despite these problems we do experience a 'meeting of minds' with other individuals at certain times. People are even able to ignore the words actually said, and say something like "I don't agree with what you are saying; but I do agree with what you mean." Schumacher argues that one of the reasons we can understand other people is through bodily experience, because so many bodily expressions, gestures and postures are part of our common human heritage. Schumacher observes that the traditional answer to the study of field two has been "You can understand others to the extent you understand yourself." Schumacher points out that this a logical development of the principle of adequateness, how can you understand someone's pain unless you to have experienced pain? "Symbols", he says, "cannot be understood like mathematical formulae, they have to be experienced interiorly". Field three is understanding yourself as an objective phenomenon. Knowledge in field three requires you to be aware what other people think of you. Schumacher suggests that the most fruitful advice in this field can be gained by studying the Fourth Way concept of external considering. Schumacher observes that relying on just field one knowledge makes you feel that you are the centre of the universe; while focusing on field three knowledge makes you feel you far more insignificant. Seeking self knowledge via both fields provides more balanced and accurate self knowledge. Field four is the behaviourist study of the outside world. Science is highly active in this area of knowledge and many people believe it is the only field in which true knowledge can be gained. For Schumacher, applying the scientific approach is highly appropriate in this field. Schumacher summarises is views about the four fields of knowledge as follows: - Only when all four fields of knowledge are cultivated can you have true unity of knowledge. Instruments and methodologies of study should be only applied to the appropriate field they are designed for.
- Clarity of knowledge depends on relating the four fields of knowledge to the four levels of being.
- The instructional sciences should confine their remit to field four, because it is only in the field of appearances that mathematical precision can be obtained. The descriptive sciences, however, are not behaving appropriately if they focus solely on appearances, and must delve in meaning and purpose or they will produce sterile results.
- Self knowledge can only be effectively pursued by balanced study of field one (self awareness) and field three (objective self knowledge).
- Study of field two (understanding other individuals) is dependent on first developing a powerful insight into field one (self awareness).
Two types of problem Schumacher argues that there are two types of problems in the world: For Schumacher recognising which type a problem is one of the arts of living. Convergent problems are ones in which attempted solutions gradually converge on one solution or answer. An example of this has been the development of the bicycle. Early attempts at developing man powered vehicle included three and four wheelers; and involved wheels of different sizes. Modern bicycles look much the same nowadays. Divergent problems are ones which do converge on a single solution. A classic example Schumacher provides is that of education. Is discipline or freedom the best way to teach? Education researchers have debated this issue for thousand of years without converging on a solution. Schumacher sums up the convergent problems are those that are concerned with the non-living universe. While divergent problems are concerned with the universe of the living, and so there is always a degree of inner experience and freedom to contend with. The solution to divergent problems is to transcend them, arguing for instance in education that the real solution is love or caring. Love and discipline works effectively; but so does love and freedom. Art Schumacher in a digression from his main argument discusses the nature and importance of art. He notes that there is considerable confusion about the nature and meaning of art; but argues that this confusion dissipates when one considers art with relation to its affect on human beings. Most art fits into two categories. If art is designed to primarily affect our feelings then it is entertainment; while if art is primarily designed to affect our will then it is propaganda. Great art is a multi-faceted phenomena, which is not content to be merely propaganda or entertainment; but by appealing to man's higher intellectual and emotional faculties, it is designed to communicate truth. When entertainment and propaganda are transcended by, and subordinated to the communication of truth, art helps develop our higher faculties and that make it great. The tasks of man Schumacher notes that within philosophy there is no field in more disarray than ethics. He argues that this is because most ethical debate sidesteps any "prior clarification of the purpose of human life on the earth." Schumacher believes that ethics is the study of divergent problems; which require transcendence by the individual, not a new type of ethics to be adopted by all. Schumacher points out that there is an increasingly recognition among individuals that many solutions to human problems must be made by individuals not by society, and cannot be solved by political solutions that rearrange the system. He argues that the "modern attempt to life without religion has failed". Schumacher says that the tasks of an individual can be summed up as follows: - Learn from society and tradition.
- Interiorize this knowledge, learn to think for yourself and become self directed.
- Grow beyond the narrow concerns of the ego.
Man, he says, in the larger sense must learn again to subordinate the sciences of manipulation to the sciences of wisdom; a theme he further develops in his book Small is Beautiful. Reflections Schumacher's treatise is as relevant today as when it first written. It is a book that is highly popular among the religious and spiritual community, because it provides a powerful defence for the religious and spiritual spheres that is grounded solely in scientific argument. One necessary update to its argument is that Schumacher seems to have been unaware in 1977 that dolphins, chimpanzees and orangutans have repeatedly passed the mirror test for self awareness; and so Schumacher's argument that humans are unique in self consciousness seems questionable. In his later years Schumacher turned to Catholicism and so it is interesting to speculate as to how and whether he would have amended his argument to take into account this test, which implies humans are not unique on Earth. Schumacher's argument that life, consciousness and self consciousness are mysteries that cannot be explained by science remains largely correct as of 2005. Intriguingly there seems to have been far more scientific interest in attempting to explain consciousness and self consciousness than life itself. Schumacher's argument stands or falls on his view that there are levels of being. The dominant scientific view still remains that there is no differentiation of being, and so from that perspective Schumacher's initial assumptions are fatally flawed. A more interesting perspective on Schumacher's ideas of levels of being can be taken by considering alternative theories of being. Over the second half of the 20th century a number of other thinkers have proposed various theories founded on levels of being. Gregory Bateson, the systems theorist and philosopher, argued in his book Mind and Nature that there is a more simple divide between the inanimate (pleroma) and living (creatura). Robert Pirsig, in his philosophical novel , argues that reality is divided into five different types of pattern: inanimate, biological, social, intellectual and dynamic. Footnotes - A Guide For The Perplexed, E. F. Schumacher, p. 13.
- Ibid, p. 15.
- Ibid, p. 30.
- Ibid, p. 31.
- Ibid, p. 32.
- Ibid, p. 31.
- Ibid, p. 22.
- Ibid, p. 49.
- Ibid, p. 68.
- Ibid, p. 81.
- Ibid, p. 95.
- Ibid, p. 98.
- Ibid, p. 146.
References - A Guide for the Perplexed, E. F. Schumacher (1977, ISBN 022401496X; still in paperback, ISBN 0060906111)
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