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Peru When the Spanish landed in 1531 Peru's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed Inca civilization. Centered at Cuzco the Inca Empire extended over a vast region from northern Ecuador to central Chile. In search of Inca wealth the Spanish explorer Francisco Pizarro who arrived in the territory after the Incas had fought a debilitating civil war conquered the weakened people. The Spanish had captured the Incan capital at Cuzco by 1533 and consolidated their control by 1542. Gold and silver from the Andes enriched the conquerors and Peru became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America. Pizarro founded Lima in 1535. The viceroyalty established at Lima in 1542 initially had jurisdiction over all of South America except Portuguese Brazil. By the time of the wars of independence (1820-24) Lima had become the most distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital and the chief Spanish stronghold in America. Peru's independence movement was led by Jose de San Martin of Argentina and Simon Bolivar of Venezuela. San Martin proclaimed Peruvian independence from Spain on July 28 1821. Emancipation was completed in December 1824 when General Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the Spanish troops at Ayacucho ending Spanish rule in South America. Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies but in 1879 it finally recognized Peru's independence. After independence Peru and its neighbors engaged in intermittent territorial disputes. Chile's victory over Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879-83) resulted in a territorial settlement. Following a clash between Peru and Ecuador in 1941 the Rio Protocol--of which the United States is one of four guarantors--sought to establish the boundary between the two countries. Continuing boundary disagreement led to brief armed conflicts in early 1981 and early 1995. The military has been prominent in Peruvian history. Coups have repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional government. The most recent period of military rule (1968-80) began when General Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando Belaunde Terry of the Popular Action Party (AP). As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's nationalist program Velasco undertook an extensive agrarian reform program and nationalized the fish meal industry some petroleum companies and several banks and mining firms. Because of Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health he was replaced by General Francisco Morales Bermudez Cerruti in 1975. Morales Bermudez moved the revolution into a more pragmatic "second phase tempering the authoritarian abuses of the first phase and beginning the task of restoring the country's economy. Morales Bermudez presided over the return to civilian government in accordance with a new constitution drawn up in 1979. In the May 1980 elections, President Belaunde Terry was returned to office by an impressive plurality. Nagging economic problems left over from the military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the El Nino" weather phenomenon in 1982-83 which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country severe droughts in others and decimated the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's major resources. After a promising beginning Belaunde's popularity eroded under the stress of inflation economic hardship and terrorism. During the 1980s cultivation of illicit coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope. Rural terrorism by Sendero Luminoso (SL) and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) increased during this time and derived significant financial support from their alliances with the narcotraffickers. In 1985 the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) won the presidential election bringing Alan Garcia Perez to office. The transfer of the presidency from Belaunde to Garcia on July 28 1985 was Peru's first exchange of power from one democratically elected leader to another in 40 years. Extreme economic mismanagement by the Garcia Administration led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990. Concerned about the economy the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso and allegations of official corruption voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician Alberto Fujimori as president in 1990. Fujimori's election ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity. Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting dissatisfaction with his regime. FUJIMORI won reelection to a third term in the spring of 2000, but international pressure and corruption scandals led to his ouster by Congress in November of that year. A caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001, which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government; his presidency has been hampered by allegations of corruption.
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